What type of genetic effects can radiation cause?

Radiation exposure can lead to genetic effects that impact future generations through damage to the genetic material in both male and female reproductive cells. The correct understanding is that when radiation affects the DNA in sperm and egg cells, it can result in mutations or other genetic alterations. These changes can then be passed on to offspring, which includes any developing fetus during pregnancy.

This understanding aligns with the principles of genetic effects of ionizing radiation, where damage to germ cells can lead to hereditary mutations. These potential mutations might manifest as developmental issues or other genetic disorders in the offspring, emphasizing the significance of assessing radiation exposure in a reproductive context.

The other types mentioned in the question focus on limited or immediate effects, such as damage only to one parent or physical birth defects. While physical defects can arise from radiation exposure, they are more associated with teratogenic effects affecting the developing fetus rather than genetic effects, which are heritable traits or mutations passed down to subsequent generations. The focus on just one parent's damage overlooks the comprehensive impact that radiation can have on the gametes of both parents and the potential long-term consequences for their descendants. Thus, the wider scope of genetic damage recognized in the correct option highlights its importance in assessing the implications of radiation exposure.